{"id":3297,"date":"2025-05-19T17:19:00","date_gmt":"2025-05-19T09:19:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.ductileironsuppliers.com\/?p=3297"},"modified":"2025-05-30T10:45:40","modified_gmt":"2025-05-30T02:45:40","slug":"ductile-iron-pipe-history-from-medieval-water-mains-to-modern-innovations","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.ductileironsuppliers.com\/ar\/ductile-iron-pipe-history-from-medieval-water-mains-to-modern-innovations.html","title":{"rendered":"\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644: \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0627\u0647 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0635\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0633\u0637\u0649 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0628\u062a\u0643\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062b\u0629"},"content":{"rendered":"

\u0625\u0646\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644<\/strong>\u064a\u0639\u0648\u062f \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0628\u062a\u0643\u0627\u0631 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0639\u0627\u0645 1948 \u0639\u0646\u062f\u0645\u0627 \u0627\u0628\u062a\u0643\u0631 \u0639\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u062f\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0634\u0631\u0643\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u064a\u0643\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0629 (INCO) \u0625\u0636\u0627\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u063a\u0646\u064a\u0633\u064a\u0648\u0645 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0647\u0631\u060c \u0645\u0645\u0627 \u0623\u062f\u0649 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0625\u0646\u062a\u0627\u062c \u0645\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0623\u0642\u0648\u0649 \u0648\u0623\u0643\u062b\u0631 \u0645\u0631\u0648\u0646\u0629 - \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0635\u0644\u064a (\u0623\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0642\u062f\u064a). \u0623\u062d\u062f\u062b\u062a \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0641\u0631\u0629 \u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u062a\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0627\u0647 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0635\u0631\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062d\u064a\u060c \u062d\u064a\u062b \u062a\u0645 \u0627\u0633\u062a\u0628\u062f\u0627\u0644 \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0647\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u0634 \u0628\u0628\u062f\u0627\u0626\u0644 \u0645\u0642\u0627\u0648\u0645\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u062a\u0622\u0643\u0644 \u0648\u0639\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u062f. \u0648\u0628\u062d\u0644\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0645\u0633\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0646\u060c \u0642\u0627\u0645\u062a ASTM \u0628\u062a\u0648\u062d\u064a\u062f \u062f\u0631\u062c\u0627\u062a \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644 (\u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0633\u0628\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062b\u0627\u0644\u060c ASTM A536)\u060c \u0645\u0645\u0627 \u0639\u0632\u0632 \u062f\u0648\u0631\u0647\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0634\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0629. \u0648\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0645\u060c \u062a\u0647\u064a\u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u0646\u0638\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0631\u0627\u0641\u0642 \u0628\u0633\u0628\u0628 \u0637\u0648\u0644 \u0639\u0645\u0631\u0647\u0627 (\u0623\u0643\u062b\u0631 \u0645\u0646 100 \u0639\u0627\u0645)\u060c \u0648\u0645\u0631\u0648\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0636\u063a\u0637\u060c \u0648\u0641\u0639\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0643\u0644\u0641\u0629.<\/p>\n

\"\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e<\/a>
\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

1. \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0635\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0628\u0643\u0631\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f\u064a\u0629 (\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 15-18)<\/h2>\n

1.1 \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0627\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0646\u0648\u0639\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0647\u0631 \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0635\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0633\u0637\u0649<\/h3>\n

\u0625\u0646 \u0623\u0648\u0644 \u062e\u0637 \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0645\u0633\u062c\u0644<\/strong>-\u0645\u0635\u0646\u0648\u0639\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0647\u0631- \u062a\u0645 \u062a\u0631\u0643\u064a\u0628\u0647\u0627 \u0641\u064a 1445<\/strong> \u0644\u0646\u0642\u0644 \u0645\u064a\u0627\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u064a\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0639 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0642\u0644\u0639\u0629 \u062f\u064a\u0644\u0646\u0628\u0648\u0631\u063a<\/strong> \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0627\u060c \u0648\u0647\u0648 \u0623\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0627\u0645 \u0645\u0639\u0631\u0648\u0641 \u0644\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0641\u064a \u0646\u0642\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0627\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0636\u063a\u0648\u0637\u0629.
\u0628\u0648\u0627\u0633\u0637\u0629 1644<\/strong>\u0641\u0625\u0646 \u0641\u0631\u0633\u0627\u064a<\/strong> \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0648\u0627\u0641\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0645\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 21 \u0643\u0645<\/strong> \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0646\u0647\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0646\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0632\u0627\u0644 \u062c\u0632\u0621 \u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u064a\u0639\u0645\u0644 \u062d\u062a\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0645 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0645\u0627 \u064a\u0642\u0631\u0628 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0631\u0628\u0639\u0629 \u0642\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u062f\u0645\u0629.
\u0641\u064a 1749<\/strong>\u060c \u0627\u0639\u062a\u0645\u062f\u062a \u0644\u0646\u062f\u0646 \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0647\u0631 \u0644\u0625\u0645\u062f\u0627\u062f \u0645\u064a\u0627\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u0628\u060c \u0644\u062a\u062d\u0644 \u0645\u062d\u0644 \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0635\u0627\u0635 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0634\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0628\u0633\u0628\u0628 \u062a\u062d\u0633\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0627\u0646\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0641\u0648\u0627\u0626\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062d\u064a\u0629.<\/p>\n

1.2 \u0645\u0641\u0635\u0644 \u062c\u064a\u0645\u0633 \u0648\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0631\u0646 (1810)<\/h3>\n

\u0641\u064a 1810<\/strong>\u062d\u0635\u0644 \u062c\u064a\u0645\u0633 \u0648\u0627\u062a \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0628\u0631\u0627\u0621\u0629 \u0627\u062e\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0639 \u0623\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0642\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u0631\u0646<\/strong> \u0644\u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f\u060c \u0645\u0645\u0627 \u064a\u0633\u0645\u062d \u0628\u062d\u0627\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062e\u062a\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u063a\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0643\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0646 \u062d\u062f\u0648\u062b \u062a\u0633\u0631\u0628\u0627\u062a - \u0648\u0647\u0648 \u062a\u0642\u062f\u0645 \u062d\u0627\u0633\u0645 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u0628\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0648\u064a\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0627\u0641\u0629.
\u0634\u0647\u062f\u062a \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0635\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0627\u0645\u064b\u0627 \u0645\u0628\u0643\u0631\u064b\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u062d\u0637\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0627\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0646\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u064a\u0637\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0623\u0644\u0647\u0645\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0635\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0644\u0627\u062d\u0642\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0628\u0633 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0646\u0641\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062c\u0631\u0633 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0646\u0641\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0627\u0633\u062a\u0645\u0631\u062a \u062d\u062a\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0646.<\/p>\n

2. \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062e\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u062f\u0646\u064a: \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644 (\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0633\u0639 \u0639\u0634\u0631 \u0648\u0645\u0646\u062a\u0635\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0646)<\/h2>\n

2.1 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0647\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0628\u0644 \u0644\u0644\u0637\u0631\u0642<\/h3>\n

\u0641\u064a \u062c\u0645\u064a\u0639 \u0623\u0646\u062d\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0633\u0639 \u0639\u0634\u0631<\/strong>, \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0647\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a<\/strong> \u0647\u064a\u0645\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0628\u0633\u0628\u0628 \u0633\u0647\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0628 \u0648\u0644\u0643\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u0639\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u0634\u0627\u0634\u0629 \u0648\u0645\u0639\u062f\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0636\u063a\u0637 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u062f\u0648\u062f\u0629.
\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0637\u064a\u0651\u0639<\/strong>-\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0647\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0628\u064a\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u0644\u062c \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0644\u062a\u062d\u0648\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0631\u0627\u0641\u064a\u062a \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u062c\u0631\u0627\u0641\u064a\u062a \u0643\u0631\u0648\u064a- \u064a\u0648\u0641\u0631 \u0635\u0644\u0627\u0628\u0629 \u0623\u0643\u0628\u0631 \u0648\u0644\u0643\u0646\u0647 \u064a\u0638\u0644 \u0643\u062b\u064a\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0644\u0629 \u0648\u0645\u0643\u0644\u0641\u064b\u0627.<\/p>\n

2.2 \u0627\u0643\u062a\u0634\u0627\u0641 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0631\u0627\u0641\u064a\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0631\u0648\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0643\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0631\u0648\u064a<\/h3>\n

\u0641\u064a 1943<\/strong>\u060c \u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u062f\u0646 \u0643\u064a\u062b \u062f. \u0645\u064a\u0644\u064a\u0633<\/strong> \u0641\u064a \u0634\u0631\u0643\u0629 Inco \u0623\u0646 \u0625\u0636\u0627\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u063a\u0646\u064a\u0633\u064a\u0648\u0645<\/strong> \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0647\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0647\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u062a\u062c \u0639\u0642\u064a\u062f\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0631\u0627\u0641\u064a\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0631\u0648\u064a\u0629<\/strong>\u062a\u062d\u0633\u064a\u0646 \u0642\u0648\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u062f \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646\u0629 \u0628\u0634\u0643\u0644 \u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631.
\u062d\u0635\u0644 \u0645\u064a\u0644\u064a\u0633 \u0645\u0639 \u0623\u0644\u0628\u0631\u062a \u0628\u0648\u0644 \u062c\u0627\u062c\u0646\u064a\u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u0646\u0648\u0631\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0628\u064a\u0644\u064a\u0646\u062c \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0628\u0631\u0627\u0621\u0629 \u0627\u062e\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0639 \u0623\u0645\u0631\u064a\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0631\u0642\u0645 2,485,760<\/strong> \u0641\u064a 1949<\/strong> \u0644\u0640 \u0633\u0628\u0627\u0626\u0643 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0635\u0628\u0648\u0628\u0629<\/strong> \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0631\u0627\u0641\u064a\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0642\u062f\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u064a\u0647\u062f\u0641 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0633\u062f\u0651 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u062c\u0648\u0629 \u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0623\u062f\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0635\u0644\u0628.<\/p>\n

2.3 \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0631\u064a\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649<\/h3>\n

\u0638\u0647\u0631\u062a \u0645\u0635\u0628\u0648\u0628\u0627\u062a \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0631\u064a\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a 1948<\/strong>\u060c \u0645\u0639 \u0628\u062f\u0621 \u0625\u0646\u062a\u0627\u062c \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a 1955<\/strong>\u0645\u0645\u0627 \u064a\u0646\u062a\u062c \u0639\u0646\u0647 \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0623\u0642\u0648\u0649 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0631\u0628\u0639\u0629 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u062b\u0646\u064a \u0639\u0634\u0631 \u0636\u0639\u0641\u064b\u0627 \u0648\u0623\u0642\u0648\u0649 \u0628\u0643\u062b\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u062b\u064a\u0644\u0627\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0646\u0648\u0639\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a.<\/p>\n

3. \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0633\u0648\u064a\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0627\u0631\u064a \u0648\u0643\u0628\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0646\u0639\u064a\u0646<\/h2>\n

3.1 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u0643\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0631\u064a\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0647\u0631 (ACIPCO)<\/h3>\n

\u062a\u0623\u0633\u0633\u062a 1905<\/strong> \u0641\u064a \u0628\u0631\u0645\u0646\u062c\u0647\u0627\u0645\u060c \u0623\u0644\u0627\u0628\u0627\u0645\u0627\u060c \u0648\u0636\u0639\u062a \u0634\u0631\u0643\u0629 \u0623\u0633\u064a\u0628\u0643\u0648 \u062c\u0645\u064a\u0639 \u0623\u0633\u0647\u0645\u0647\u0627 \u0641\u064a 1922<\/strong>\u060c \u062a\u0639\u0632\u064a\u0632 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0634\u0631\u0627\u0641 \u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0638\u0641 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u064a\u0644.
\u0642\u062f\u0645\u062a \u0623\u0633\u064a\u0628\u0643\u0648 \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644<\/strong> \u062a\u062c\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0641\u064a 1955<\/strong>\u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0641\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0642\u062f\u0631\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u062c\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0627\u0628\u0643 \u0644\u062a\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u062a\u0637\u0644\u0628\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u062a\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0641\u062a\u0631\u0629 \u0645\u0627 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0628.<\/p>\n

3.2 \u0634\u0631\u0643\u0629 \u0645\u0627\u0643\u0648\u0627\u0646 \u0644\u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0647\u0631<\/h3>\n

\u062c\u064a\u0645\u0633 \u0631. \u0645\u0627\u0643\u0648\u0627\u0646<\/strong> \u0623\u0633\u0633\u062a \u0634\u0631\u0643\u0629 McWane \u0641\u064a 1921<\/strong>\u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0648\u0633\u0639 \u063a\u0631\u0628\u064b\u0627 \u0645\u0639 \u0645\u0633\u0628\u0643 \u0628\u0631\u0648\u0641\u0648 \u0641\u064a \u0628\u0631\u0648\u0641\u0648 \u0628\u0648\u0644\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u062a\u0643\u0633\u0627\u0633 \u0641\u064a 1926<\/strong>.
\u0628\u062f\u0623\u062a McWane \u0641\u064a \u0625\u0646\u062a\u0627\u062c \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0641\u062a\u0631\u0629 \u0648\u062c\u064a\u0632\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u062e\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0639\u0647 \u0648\u0644\u0627 \u062a\u0632\u0627\u0644 \u0648\u0627\u062d\u062f\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u062b\u0644\u0627\u062b\u0629 \u0645\u0646\u062a\u062c\u064a\u0646 \u0631\u0626\u064a\u0633\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0644\u0627\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u062d\u062f\u0629 \u062d\u062a\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0645.<\/p>\n

3.3 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0628\u0646\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a: \u0643\u0648\u0628\u0648\u062a\u0627 \u0648\u0645\u0627 \u0628\u0639\u062f\u0647\u0627<\/h3>\n

\u0641\u064a 1954<\/strong>, \u0634\u0631\u0643\u0629 \u0643\u0648\u0628\u0648\u062a\u0627<\/strong> \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u064a\u0627\u0628\u0627\u0646 \u0623\u0648\u0644 \u0645\u0646 \u0642\u0627\u0645 \u0628\u062a\u0633\u0648\u064a\u0642 \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644 \u0630\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0637\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631<\/strong>\u0645\u062f\u0641\u0648\u0639\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u062d\u062a\u064a\u0627\u062c\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062d\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u0629 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u062a\u0641\u0634\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0631\u0627\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u062f\u064a\u0629.
\u0648\u062a\u0628\u0639\u0647\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0646\u0639\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0641\u064a 1960s<\/strong>\u0645\u0639 \u0647\u064a\u0626\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u064a\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u062b\u0644 \u0645\u0624\u0633\u0633\u0629 Fachgemeinschaft Guss-Rohrsysteme<\/strong> \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0634\u0643\u064a\u0644 \u0644\u062a\u0646\u0633\u064a\u0642 \u0645\u0648\u0627\u0635\u0641\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0627\u062f \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0641\u0627\u0635\u0644.<\/p>\n

4. \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0633\u064a\u0646\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0643\u0646\u0648\u0644\u0648\u062c\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629 (\u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u062a\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0627\u062a \u062d\u062a\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0622\u0646)<\/h2>\n

4.1 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0637\u0627\u0646\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0627\u062e\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0645\u0648\u0627\u0646\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0633\u0631\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0634\u062a\u0631\u0643\u0629<\/h3>\n

\u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0645\u0629 \u0628\u0637\u0627\u0646\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0647\u0627\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0645\u0646\u062a\u064a\u0629<\/strong> \u062a\u0645 \u062a\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0645\u0647 \u0641\u064a 1922<\/strong>\u062a\u0648\u0641\u064a\u0631 \u062d\u0648\u0627\u062c\u0632 \u0643\u064a\u0645\u064a\u0627\u0626\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0641\u064a\u0632\u064a\u0627\u0626\u064a\u0629 \u0636\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0622\u0643\u0644 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0636\u0627\u0621 \u0641\u0639\u0644\u064a\u064b\u0627 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062f\u0631\u0646.
\u0628\u0645\u0627 \u0623\u0646 1980s<\/strong>, \u0637\u0644\u0627\u0621\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0648\u0644\u064a \u064a\u0648\u0631\u064a\u062b\u0627\u0646<\/strong> \u0648 \u0628\u0637\u0627\u0646\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u064a\u0628\u0648\u0643\u0633\u064a<\/strong> \u062a\u0645 \u0627\u0639\u062a\u0645\u0627\u062f\u0647\u0627 \u0644\u062a\u0637\u0628\u064a\u0642\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0631\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062d\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0635\u0646\u0627\u0639\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u062f\u0648\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629.<\/p>\n

4.2 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0645\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0622\u0643\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0627\u0631\u062c\u064a<\/h3>\n

\u062a\u0643\u0645\u064a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0648\u0644\u064a \u0625\u064a\u062b\u064a\u0644\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u0626\u0628 (LPS)<\/strong>\u062a\u0645 \u062a\u0637\u0648\u064a\u0631\u0647 \u0641\u064a 1951<\/strong> \u0645\u0646 \u0642\u0628\u0644 CIPRA (\u0627\u0644\u0622\u0646 DIPRA)\u060c \u0644\u0627 \u062a\u0632\u0627\u0644 \u062a\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0645 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0646\u0637\u0627\u0642 \u0648\u0627\u0633\u0639 \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0645\u0631\u064a\u0643\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629.
\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u064a\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u062a\u0641\u0636\u0644 \u0623\u0646\u0638\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0644\u0627\u0621 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0632\u0646\u0643 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0631<\/strong> \u0645\u063a\u0637\u0649 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0628\u0648\u0644\u064a \u0625\u064a\u062b\u064a\u0644\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u0625\u0637\u0627\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0641\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0636\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0631\u0628\u0629 \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0631\u0629.<\/p>\n

4.3 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0642\u062f\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u062c\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0626\u0629 \u0648\u0625\u0639\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062f\u0648\u064a\u0631<\/h3>\n

\u062a\u0635\u0646\u0639 \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062b\u0629 \u0645\u0646 100% \u062e\u0631\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0635\u0644\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u062f \u062a\u062f\u0648\u064a\u0631\u0647<\/strong>\u060c \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0627\u0642\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0635\u0646\u064a\u0639<\/strong> ~19.6 \u0645\u064a\u062c\u0627 \u062c\u0648\u0644\/\u0643\u062c\u0645 \u062a\u0642\u0631\u064a\u0628\u064b\u0627 \u0648\u0627\u0646\u0628\u0639\u0627\u062b\u0627\u062a \u062b\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0623\u0643\u0633\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0631\u0628\u0648\u0646 ~ 1.43 \u0643\u062c\u0645\/\u0643\u062c\u0645 - \u0623\u0642\u0644 \u0628\u0643\u062b\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0646 \u0628\u062f\u0627\u0626\u0644 PVC.
\u0625\u0646 \u0625\u0639\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062f\u0648\u064a\u0631 \u0641\u064a \u0646\u0647\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0641\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0636\u064a \u064a\u063a\u0644\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0644\u0642\u0629\u060c \u062d\u064a\u062b \u064a\u0645\u0643\u0646 \u0625\u0639\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0635\u0647\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u062c\u0644 \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0633\u0645\u0649 \u062f\u0648\u0646 \u0641\u0642\u062f\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0645\u062a\u0644\u0643\u0627\u062a.<\/p>\n

5. \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062f\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0631\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0641\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0636\u064a<\/h2>\n
\n
\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0627\u062f<\/th>\n\u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644<\/th>\n\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0634\u063a\u064a\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0645\u0648\u0630\u062c\u064a<\/th>\n\u062a\u0635\u0646\u064a\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0636\u063a\u0637<\/th>\n\u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0622\u0643\u0644<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0632\u0647\u0631 \u0631\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a<\/strong><\/td>\n1445<\/td>\n50-75 \u0633\u0646\u0629<\/td>\n200-300 \u0631\u0637\u0644 \u0644\u0643\u0644 \u0628\u0648\u0635\u0629 \u0645\u0631\u0628\u0639\u0629<\/td>\n\u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u062a\u0648\u0645\u064a\u0646\u060c \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0632\u062c\u064a\u062c<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0637\u064a\u0651\u0639<\/strong><\/td>\n1800s<\/td>\n60-80 \u0633\u0646\u0629<\/td>\n300-350 \u0631\u0637\u0644 \u0644\u0643\u0644 \u0628\u0648\u0635\u0629 \u0645\u0631\u0628\u0639\u0629<\/td>\n\u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u062a\u0648\u0645\u064a\u0646\u060c LPS<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644<\/strong><\/td>\n1955<\/td>\n100-120 \u0633\u0646\u0629<\/td>\n350-500 \u0631\u0637\u0644 \u0644\u0643\u0644 \u0628\u0648\u0635\u0629 \u0645\u0631\u0628\u0639\u0629<\/td>\n\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0628\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0645\u0646\u062a\u064a\u060c LPS<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0628\u0648\u0644\u064a \u0643\u0644\u0648\u0631\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0641\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0644<\/strong><\/td>\n1950s<\/td>\n50-70 \u0633\u0646\u0629<\/td>\n150-250 \u0631\u0637\u0644\/\u0628\u0648\u0635\u0629 \u0645\u0631\u0628\u0639\u0629<\/td>\n\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0648\u062c\u062f<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
\u0627\u0644\u0628\u0648\u0644\u064a \u0625\u064a\u062b\u064a\u0644\u064a\u0646 \u0639\u0627\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0643\u062b\u0627\u0641\u0629<\/strong><\/td>\n1970s<\/td>\n100 \u0639\u0627\u0645 (\u062a\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0631\u064a\u064b\u0627)<\/td>\n100-200 \u0631\u0637\u0644 \u0644\u0643\u0644 \u0628\u0648\u0635\u0629 \u0645\u0631\u0628\u0639\u0629<\/td>\n\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0648\u062c\u062f<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n
\n
<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0631\u0646\u0629 \u062a\u0633\u0644\u0637 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0631\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0648\u0621 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u0646 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644 \u0644\u0627 \u0645\u062b\u064a\u0644 \u0644\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0648\u0629<\/strong>, \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0631\u0648\u0646\u0629<\/strong>\u0648 \u0639\u0645\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u062f\u0645\u0629<\/strong>\u062d\u062a\u0649 \u0641\u064a \u0638\u0631\u0648\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0644\u0627\u0632\u0644 \u0623\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0636\u063a\u0637 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u064a.<\/p>\n

6. \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062a\u062c\u0627\u0647\u0627\u062a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0627\u0628\u062a\u0643\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0628\u0644\u064a\u0629<\/h2>\n

6.1 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0644\u0627\u0621\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0630\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u062a\u0643\u0627\u0645\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0634\u0639\u0631\u0627\u062a<\/h3>\n

\u0627\u0644\u0628\u062d\u062b \u0641\u064a \u0637\u0644\u0627\u0621\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0645\u0631 \u0630\u0627\u062a\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0641\u0627\u0621<\/strong> \u0648 \u0645\u0633\u062a\u0634\u0639\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0644\u064a\u0627\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0635\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062f\u0645\u062c\u0629<\/strong> \u064a\u0647\u062f\u0641 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0631\u0627\u0642\u0628\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0622\u0643\u0644 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0625\u062c\u0647\u0627\u062f \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0642\u0639\u060c \u0645\u0645\u0627 \u064a\u0648\u0633\u0639 \u0645\u0646 \u0642\u062f\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0635\u064a\u0627\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0646\u0628\u0624\u064a\u0629.<\/p>\n

6.2 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0635\u0646\u064a\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u062f\u0627\u0645<\/h3>\n

\u0627\u0644\u062f\u0631\u0627\u0633\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0647\u062f\u0641\u0629 \u062a\u0642\u0644\u064a\u0644 \u0622\u062b\u0627\u0631 \u0623\u0642\u062f\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0627\u0642\u0629<\/strong> \u0639\u0628\u0631 \u0639\u0648\u0627\u0645\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062e\u062a\u0632\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u062f\u064a\u0644\u0629<\/strong> \u0648 \u062a\u0643\u0627\u0645\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0627\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u062c\u062f\u062f\u0629<\/strong> \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0627\u0628\u0643\u060c \u0633\u0639\u064a\u064b\u0627 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u062e\u0641\u0636 \u0627\u0646\u0628\u0639\u0627\u062b\u0627\u062a \u062b\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0623\u0643\u0633\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0631\u0628\u0648\u0646 \u0628\u0645\u0642\u062f\u0627\u0631 301 \u062a\u064a\u0631\u0627\u0628\u0627\u064a\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 2030.<\/p>\n

6.3 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0628\u0627\u0626\u0643 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0627\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0636\u0627\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u062f\u064a\u062f\u0629<\/h3>\n

\u0627\u0644\u0633\u0628\u0627\u0626\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0631\u0648\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0642\u062f\u0645\u0629 \u0648 \u062a\u0639\u0632\u064a\u0632\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0627\u0646\u0648 \u0633\u064a\u0631\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0627\u0646\u0648<\/strong> \u0642\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0631\u0627\u0633\u0629 \u0644\u0632\u064a\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u062a\u0639\u0632\u064a\u0632 \u0627\u0644\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646\u0629 \u0648\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0648\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0622\u0643\u0644 \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0641\u0627\u0638 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0642\u0627\u0628\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0628.<\/p>\n

\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0626\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0626\u0639\u0629<\/h2>\n

\u06331: \u0645\u062a\u0649 \u0648\u0623\u064a\u0646 \u062a\u0645 \u062a\u0631\u0643\u064a\u0628 \u0623\u0648\u0644 \u062e\u0637 \u0645\u064a\u0627\u0647 \u0631\u0626\u064a\u0633\u064a \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f\u064a\u061f<\/strong>
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\u0627\u0644\u0625\u062c\u0627\u0628\u0629:<\/strong> \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u063a\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0646 \u0645\u0641\u0647\u0648\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0631\u0627\u0641\u064a\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0631\u0648\u064a - \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0631\u0627\u0641\u064a\u062a \u0642\u062f \u062a\u0645 \u0625\u062b\u0628\u0627\u062a\u0647 \u062a\u062c\u0631\u064a\u0628\u064a\u064b\u0627 \u0641\u064a 1948<\/strong>\u060c \u062a\u0637\u0644\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0631 \u0633\u0646\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0646\u0642\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u062f\u0646\u064a\u0629<\/strong>, \u062a\u0643\u064a\u064a\u0641 \u0645\u0645\u0627\u0631\u0633\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0628\u0643<\/strong>\u0648 \u062a\u0631\u062e\u064a\u0635 \u0628\u0631\u0627\u0621\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062e\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0639<\/strong> \u0642\u0628\u0644 \u0625\u0646\u062a\u0627\u062c \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0642\u062a\u0635\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629. \u0628\u0631\u0627\u0621\u0629 \u0627\u062e\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0639 \u0634\u0631\u0643\u0629 Inco \u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645 1949 (2,485,760 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0627\u0631 \u0623\u0645\u0631\u064a\u0643\u064a)<\/strong> \u062d\u0645\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0644\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0623\u064f\u0642\u064a\u0645\u062a \u0634\u0631\u0627\u0643\u0627\u062a \u0635\u0646\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u062a\u0648\u0633\u064a\u0639 \u0646\u0637\u0627\u0642 \u0630\u0648\u0628\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0641\u0639\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0639\u062f\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0628\u0631\u064a\u062f \u0648\u0636\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0641\u0639\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0642\u064a\u062f\u0627\u062a. \u0648\u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0642\u062a \u0646\u0641\u0633\u0647\u060c \u0623\u062f\u062a \u0625\u0639\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0631 \u0641\u064a \u0641\u062a\u0631\u0629 \u0645\u0627 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0632\u062f\u0647\u0627\u0631 \u0628\u0631\u0627\u0645\u062c \u0625\u0645\u062f\u0627\u062f\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0627\u0647 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0627\u0637\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0636\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u062e\u0644\u0642 \u0637\u0644\u0628 \u0647\u0627\u0626\u0644 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0639\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0648\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0627\u0646\u0629. \u0648\u0628\u062d\u0644\u0648\u0644 1955<\/strong>\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0627\u0628\u0643 \u0645\u062b\u0644 \u0623\u0633\u064a\u0628\u0643\u0648<\/strong> \u0648 \u0645\u0627\u0643\u0648\u0627\u0646<\/strong> \u0642\u0627\u0645 \u0628\u062a\u062d\u0633\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u0639\u0627\u064a\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0628\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0641\u0631\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062b\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u062a\u0635\u0645\u064a\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0648\u0627\u0644\u0628\u060c \u0648\u0628\u0631\u0648\u062a\u0648\u0643\u0648\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0645\u0631\u0627\u0642\u0628\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0648\u062f\u0629 \u0644\u0637\u0631\u062d \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0646\u0637\u0627\u0642 \u0648\u0627\u0633\u0639\u060c \u0644\u062a\u062d\u0644 \u0645\u062d\u0644 \u0634\u0628\u0643\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0647\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0645\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u062c\u0645\u064a\u0639 \u0623\u0646\u062d\u0627\u0621 \u0623\u0645\u0631\u064a\u0643\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u062e\u0627\u0631\u062c\u0647\u0627.<\/p>\n

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\u0627\u0644\u0625\u062c\u0627\u0628\u0629:<\/strong> \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0645\u0629 \u0628\u0637\u0627\u0646\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0647\u0627\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0645\u0646\u062a\u064a\u0629<\/strong> (\u062a\u0645 \u062a\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0645\u0647 \u0639\u0627\u0645 1922) \u0648 \u0623\u0643\u0645\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0648\u0644\u064a \u0625\u064a\u062b\u064a\u0644\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u0626\u0628\u0629<\/strong> (1951) \u0643\u062d\u0645\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0623\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0622\u0643\u0644. \u0645\u0646\u0630 1980s<\/strong>, \u0628\u0637\u0627\u0646\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u064a\u0628\u0648\u0643\u0633\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0628\u0648\u0644\u064a \u064a\u0648\u0631\u064a\u062b\u0627\u0646<\/strong> \u062a\u0646\u0627\u0648\u0644\u0648\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0626\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0643\u062b\u0631 \u062d\u0645\u0636\u064a\u0629 \u0623\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u062d\u064a\u0646 \u0623\u0646 \u0637\u0644\u0627\u0621\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0646\u0643-\u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u062a\u0648\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u062c\u064a\u0646<\/strong> \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0636\u0627\u0641\u0629 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0643\u0645\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0637\u0627\u0628\u0642\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u064a\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0629. \u062a\u0637\u0648\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0635\u0644\u0629 - \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0631\u0633 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0646\u0641\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062e\u062a\u0648\u0645\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0631\u0635\u0627\u0635 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u062f\u0641\u0639 \u0639\u0644\u0649<\/strong> \u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0641\u0635\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0643\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0643\u064a<\/strong> \u0623\u0646\u0638\u0645\u0629 - \u062d\u0633\u0651\u0646\u062a \u0633\u0631\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0631\u0643\u064a\u0628 \u0648\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0648\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0633\u0631\u0628. \u062a\u0631\u0643\u0632 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0628\u062d\u0627\u062b \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0637\u0648\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062b\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u062e\u0644\u0637\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0645\u0631 \u0630\u0627\u062a\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0641\u0627\u0621<\/strong>, \u0645\u0633\u062a\u0634\u0639\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u062c\u0647\u0627\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0644\u064a\u0641\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0635\u0631\u064a\u0629<\/strong>\u0648 \u0625\u0636\u0627\u0641\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0627\u0646\u0648 \u0633\u064a\u0631\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0627\u0646\u0648<\/strong> \u0644\u062a\u0645\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0641\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0636\u064a \u0644\u0623\u0643\u062b\u0631 \u0645\u0646 120 \u0639\u0627\u0645\u064b\u0627 \u0648\u062a\u0645\u0643\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u0631\u0627\u0642\u0628\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0627\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0642\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0639\u0644\u064a.<\/p>\n

\u06335: \u0643\u064a\u0641 \u064a\u0645\u0643\u0646 \u0645\u0642\u0627\u0631\u0646\u0629 \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644 \u0628\u064a\u0626\u064a\u064b\u0627 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0627\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062e\u0631\u0649\u061f<\/strong>
\u0627\u0644\u0625\u062c\u0627\u0628\u0629:<\/strong> A \u062f\u0631\u0627\u0633\u0629 \u0639\u0627\u0645 1995<\/strong> \u0645\u0646 \u062c\u064a\u0633\u0634\u0627\u0631 \u0648\u0622\u062e\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0623\u0646 \u062a\u0635\u0646\u064a\u0639 \u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644 \u064a\u0633\u062a\u0647\u0644\u0643 ~19.6 \u0645\u064a\u062c\u0627 \u062c\u0648\u0644\/\u0643\u062c\u0645<\/strong> \u0648\u064a\u0635\u062f\u0631 1.43 \u0643\u062c\u0645 CO\u2082\/\u0643\u062c\u0645<\/strong>\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0628\u0644 68.3 \u0645\u064a\u062c\u0627 \u062c\u0648\u0644\/\u0643\u062c\u0645<\/strong> (4.86 \u0643\u063a\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u062b\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0623\u0643\u0633\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0631\u0628\u0648\u0646\/\u0643\u063a\u0645) \u0644\u0644\u0628\u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u064a\u0643 PVC \u0648 1.24 \u0645\u064a\u062c\u0627 \u062c\u0648\u0644\/\u0643\u062c\u0645<\/strong> (0.148 \u0643\u062c\u0645 CO\u2082\/\u0643\u062c\u0645) \u0644\u0644\u062e\u0631\u0633\u0627\u0646\u0629 \u0630\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062c\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0645\u0627\u062b\u0644. \u0644\u0623\u0646 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644 \u0645\u0635\u0646\u0648\u0639 \u0645\u0646 \u062e\u0631\u062f\u0629 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0639\u0627\u062f \u062a\u062f\u0648\u064a\u0631\u0647\u0627 100%<\/strong>\u060c \u062a\u062a\u0642\u0644\u0635 \u0622\u062b\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0631\u0628\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0627\u0641\u064a\u0629 \u0623\u0643\u062b\u0631 \u0641\u064a \u062a\u062d\u0644\u064a\u0644\u0627\u062a \u062f\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u064a\u0627\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u063a\u0644\u0642\u0629. \u0641\u064a \u0646\u0647\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0641\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0636\u064a\u060c \u062a\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0646\u0647\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0641\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0636\u064a 100% \u0642\u0627\u0628\u0644\u0629 \u0644\u0625\u0639\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062f\u0648\u064a\u0631<\/strong> \u062f\u0648\u0646 \u062a\u062f\u0647\u0648\u0631\u060c \u0641\u064a \u062d\u064a\u0646 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u064a\u0643 \u064a\u062a\u062d\u0644\u0644 \u0623\u0648 \u064a\u062a\u0637\u0644\u0628 \u0625\u0639\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0645\u0639\u0627\u0644\u062c\u0629 \u0643\u062b\u064a\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0627\u0642\u0629. \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0648\u0627\u0645\u0644 \u062a\u062f\u0639\u0645 \u062a\u0635\u0646\u064a\u0641 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0639\u0627\u064a\u064a\u0631 \u062f\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u064a\u0627\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0627\u0635\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0638\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u062a\u0648\u062d\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0627\u064a\u064a\u0633 (ISO) \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0638\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u064a\u064a\u0631 (EN) \u0644\u0644\u0628\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u062a\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u062f\u0627\u0645\u0629.<\/p>\n

\u06336: \u0645\u0627 \u0647\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0628\u062a\u0643\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0628\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062a\u0644\u0648\u062d \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0641\u0642 \u0644\u0623\u0646\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0628 \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0627\u064a\u0644\u061f<\/strong>
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\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639:<\/h2>\n